Codes and codebreaking
To celebrate the 60th anniversary of the UNE Museum of Antiquities (UNEMA), we're holding an exhibition: Codes and Codebreaking, which looks at some of the technological advances behind the development of writing (encoding) and secret messages (steganography and cryptography).
See the exhibition below then have a go at our codebreaking challenge.
Part I of this exhibition, A history of writing technology (encoding), explores some key developments in writing technology from antiquity to the modern era. It investigates a variety of tools used to construct written messages from the stone age to the digital era.
History of writing technology (encoding)
Part II of this exhibition, Science of secret messages (cryptology), explores some key developments in the thinking and technology behind the art of cryptography. It will take you on a journey from the Bronze Age to the Digital Byte.
Part I: A History of Writing Technology (Encoding) Section 1. Hard Media Object I.1.1: MA2000.19.1 Object I.1.2: MA-Loan 2019.3.5 Object I.1.3: MA2000.52.1 Object I.1.4: MA2000.47.1 Object I.1.5: MA2004.64.1 Object I.1.6: MA2004.65.1 Section 2: Softer Media Object I.2.0: MA2004.69.14 Object I.2.1: MA2006.18.1 Object I.2.1a: MA-Loan 2019.3.16 Object I.2.1b: MA2015.5.1 Object I.2.1c: MA1978.22.3 Object I.2.1d: MA2004.69.20 Object I.2.1e: MA2006.25.1 Object I.2.1f: MA1996.21.1 Object I.2.1g: MA1996.26.2 Object I.2.2: MA2011.1.1 Object I.2.2a: MA1987.5.1 Object I.2.3: MA1986.6.15 Object I.2.4: MA2000.33.1 Object I.2.5: MA-Loan 2019.3.13 Object I.2.6a: MA-Loan 2019.3.17 Object I.2.6b: MA-Loan 2019.3.1 Object I.2.6c: MA-Loan 2019.3.3 Object I.2.6d: MA-Loan 2019.3.2 Object I.2.6e: MA-Loan 2019.3.4 Section 3: Printing Object I.3.1: MA-Loan 2019.3.18 Object I.3.2: MA2004.69.3 Object I.3.3: MA-Loan 2019.3.14 Object I.3.4: MA-Loan 2019.3.44 Object I.3.5: MA-Loan 2019.3.1 Object I.3.6: MA-Loan 2019.3.2 Section 4: Digital Age Object I.4.0: MA-Loan 2019.3.6 Object I.4.1: MA-Loan 2019.3.47 Object I.4.2: MA-Loan 2019.3.46 Object I.4.3: MA-Loan 2019.3.45 Image I.4.4: Computer Microchip Part II: The Science of Secret Messages (Encryption and Decryption) Section 1. Antiquity Object II.1.1: MA-Loan 2019.3.15 Section 2. The Middle Ages Object II.2.1: MA-Loan 2019.3.9 Section 3. From Renaissance to Revolution Object II.3.1: MA-Loan 2019.3.12 Object II.3.2: MA-Loan 2019.3.10 Section 4. The Modern Era Object II.4.1: MA-Loan 2019.3.11 Image II.4.2: Enigma Letter Pathway Diagram Image II.4.3: Matrix Graphic of Binary Digits Image II.4.4: Imaginative Schematic of the Universe Aaronson, S., Quantum Computing since Democritus, Cambridge University Press 2013. Abbate, J., Inventing the Internet, MIT Press 1999. Agar, J., The government machine: a revolutionary history of the computer, MIT Press 2003. Alberti, L.B., A Treatise on Ciphers, trans. A. Zaccagnini, Galimberti 1997. Allen, A., “Atramentum,” in Smith, W., A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, John Murray 1875, pp.170-171. Anderson, D., "Max Newman: Forgotten Man of Early British Computing," Communications of the ACM, 56.5 (2013) 29–31. Angel Angel, J.D-J. & Morales-Luna, G., “Cryptographic Methods during the Mexican Revolution,” Cryptologia 33.2 (2009) 188-196. Belmouhoub, I., Djemai, M., Barbot, J-P. & Busawon, K., "Discrete-time synchronization of chaotic systems for secure communication," Communication Systems Networks & Digital Signal Processing (CSNDSP) 2012 8th International Symposium, (2012) 1-5. Bernstein, J., Quantum Leaps, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press 2009. Bohm, D., Quantum Theory, Dover Publications 1989. Broemeling, L.D., "An Account of Early Statistical Inference in Arab Cryptology," The American Statistician, 65.4 (2011) 255–257. Burns, R.W., Communications: an international history of the formative years, Institution of Electrical Engineers 2004. Child, H., The Calligraphers Handbook, A. & C. Black 1985. Churchhouse, R., Codes and Ciphers: Julius Caesar, the Enigma and the Internet, Cambridge University Press 2002. Clemens, R. & Graham, T., Introduction to Manuscript Studies, Cornell University Press 2007. Clot, A., Harun Al-Rashid and the Age of a Thousand and One Nights, New Amsterdam Books 1990. Cobb, V., The Secret Life of School Supplies. J. B. Lippincott, 1981. Collingridge, M.R., et al., "Ink Reservoir Writing Instruments 1905–20," Transactions of the Newcomen Society 77.1 (2007) 69–100. Cooper, B.S. & van Leeuwen, J., Alan Turing: His Work and Impact, Elsevier 2013. Copeland, B.J., Colossus: The secrets of Bletchley Park's code-breaking computers, Oxford University Press 2006. Coulmas, F., Writing systems. An introduction, Cambridge University Press 2003. Crompton, S.W., The Printing Press. Transforming Power of Technology, Chelsea House Publishers 2004. Dachselt, F., Kelber, K. & Schwarz, W., eds., “Chaotic Coding and Cryptoanalysis,” Proceedings of 1997 IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems. Circuits and Systems in the Information Age ISCAS ’97, 12 June 1997. Dachselt, F. & Schwarz, W., "Chaos and cryptography," Circuits and Systems I: Fundamental Theory and Applications IEEE Transactions on, vol. 48.12 (2001) 1498-1509. Da-Wei Kwo, Chinese brushwork in calligraphy and painting: its history, aesthetics, and techniques, Dover 1990. De Voogt, A. & Quack, J.F., eds., The Idea of Writing: Writing Across Borders, Brill 2011. Diringer, D., The Book before Printing: Ancient, Medieval, and Oriental, Dover Publications 1982. Dougherty, R.P., "Writing upon parchment and papyrus among the Babylonians and the Assyrians," Journal of the American Oriental Society, 48 (1928) 109–135. Eisenstein, E.L., The Printing Revolution in Early Modern Europe, 2nd Rev. ed., Cambridge University Press 2005. Eliot, S. & Rose, J., eds., A Companion to the History of the Book, Blackwell Publishing 2007. Em, H., The Great Enterprise: Sovereignty and Historiography in Modern Korea, Duke University Press 2013. Evans, C.L., Broad Band: the untold story of the women who made the internet, Portfolio & Penguin 2018. Febvre, L. & Martin, H-J., The Coming of the Book: The Impact of Printing 1450–1800, Verso 1997. Finlay, M., Western Writing Implements in the Age of the Quill Pen, Plains Books 1990. Gaines, H.F., Cryptanalysis: A Study of Ciphers and their Solution, Dover 2014. Gernet, J., A History of Chinese Civilization, Cambridge University Press 1996. Glaser, A., History of Binary and other Nondecimal Numeration, Tomash 1971. Glassner, J-J., The Invention of Cuneiform, English trans., Johns Hopkins University Press 2003. Hanson, T., Feathers: The evolution of a natural miracle, Basic Books 2012. Hartill, D., Cast Chinese Coins, 2nd ed., New Generation Publishing 2017. Hartill, D., Early Japanese Coins, New Generation Publishing 2011. Haswell, J., Spies & spymasters, a concise history of intelligence, Thames & Hudson 1977. Hill, J.E., Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE, BookSurge South Carolina 2009. Himanshu, P.R., Coins in India: Power and Communication, J.J. Bhabha Marg Publication 2006. Hind, A.M., An Introduction to a History of Woodcut, Houghton Mifflin Co. 1935. Hunter, D., Papermaking: The History and Technique of an Ancient Craft, Dover Publications 1978. Hyman, A., Charles Babbage: Pioneer of the Computer, Princeton University Press 1985. Ifrah, G., The Universal History of Computing: From the Abacus to the Quantum Computer, John Wiley & Sons 2001. Japes, P.M., "Reservoir, Fountain, and Stylographic Pens,” Journal of the Society of Arts, 27 October 1905. Kaye, P., Laflamme, R. & Mosca, M., An introduction to quantum computing, Oxford University Press 2007. Kahn, D., The Codebreakers: A Comprehensive History of Secret Communication from Ancient Times to the Internet, Revised and Updated, Scribner 1996. Keightley, D.N., Sources of Shang history: the oracle-bone inscriptions of Bronze Age China. Berkeley: University of California Press 1978. Kelly, T., "The Myth of the Skytale," Cryptologia 22.3 (1998) 244–260. Kerr, G., A Short History of China: from ancient dynasties to economic powerhouse, Herts Harpenden 2013. Kumar, D.U., Sreekumar, G.V., & Athvankar, U.A., “Traditional writing system in Southern India - Palm leaf manuscripts,” Design Thoughts 7 (2009) 2-7. Laffin, J., Codes and Ciphers: Secret Writing Through the Ages, Abelard-Schuman 1964. Lee, P.H., Sourcebook of Korean Civilization: Volume 1: From Early Times to the 16th Century, Columbia University Press 2010. Lucas, A.R., "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds. A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe," Technology and Culture, 46.1 (2005)1–30. Lund, P., The Book of Codes, University of California Press 2009. Mukherjee, B.N., “Money and Social Changes in India (up to c.AD 1200),” in Jafri, S.Z.H., ed., Recording the Progress of Indian History: Symposia Papers of the Indian History Congress, 1992-2010, Primus Books 2012, pp.411ff. Needham, J., Science and Civilization in China: Volumes 4-6, Caves Books Ltd. 1986. Nesbitt, A., The History and Technique of Lettering, Dover Publications Inc. 1957. Nielsen, M.A. & Chuang, I.L., Quantum Computation and Quantum Information, Cambridge University Press 2010. Op Den Velde, W. & Hartill, D., Cast Korean Coins and Charms, New Generation Publishing 2013. Padmakumar, P.K., Sreekumar, V.B., Rangan, V.V., & Renuuka, C., “Palm Leaves as Writing Material: History and Methods of Processing in Kerala,” PALMS 47.3 (2003) 125-129. Payton, R., "The Ulu Burun Writing-Board Set," Anatolian Studies 41 (1991) 99–106. Peak, D. &Frame, M., Chaos Under Control: The Art and Science of Complexity, Freeman 1994. Petroski, H., The Pencil: A History of Design and Circumstance, Alfred A. Knopf 1990. Pickover, C.A., Computers, Pattern, Chaos, and Beauty: Graphics from an Unseen World, St Martins Press 1991. Powell, B.B., Writing: Theory and History of the Technology of Civilization, Blackwell 2009. Rath, S., Aspects of Manuscript Culture in South India, Brill Academic 2012. Roberts, C.H. & Skeat, T.C., The Birth of the Codex, Oxford University Press 1954. Rogers, H., Writing Systems: A Linguistic Approach, Blackwell 2005. Ryan, J., A history of the Internet and the digital future, Reaktion Books 2010. Salomon, D., Coding for Data and Computer Communications, Springer 2005. Shaughnessy, E.L., Rewriting Early Chinese Texts, State University of New York Press 2006. Sider, D., The Library of the Villa Dei Papiri at Herculaneum, John Paul Getty Museum 2005. Singh, S., The Secret History of Codes and Code Breaking, Doubleday 1999. Spuler, B., The Muslim World: A Historical Survey. I: The Age of the Caliphs, trans. F.R.C. Bagley, E.J. Brill 1960. Staff of the Institution of Civil Engineers, eds., Chalk, American Society of Civil Engineers 1990. Stokes, J., Inside the Machine: An Illustrated Introduction to Microprocessors and Computer Architecture, No Starch Press 2007. Susini, G., The Roman Stonecutter: An Introduction to Latin Epigraphy, Basil Blackwell 1973. Szirmai, J.A., "Wooden Writing Tablets and the Birth of the Codex," Gazette du Livre Médèvale 17 (1990) 31–32. Temple, R., The Genius of China: 3,000 Years of Science, Discovery, and Invention, Simon and Schuster 1986. Thompson, R.L., Wiring A Continent, The History of the Telegraph Industry in the United States, Princeton University Press 1947. Turing, A.M., “On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem,” Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, 2.42 (1937) 230-265. Turing, A.M., “On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem: a correction,” Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, 2.43 (1937) 544-546. Twitchett, D.C., Fairbank, J.K., & Franke, H., The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6: Alien Reimes and Border States, 907-1368, Cambridge University Press 1994. Veltman, M.J.G.,Facts and Mysteries in Elementary Particle Physics, 2003. Winterbotham, F.W., The Ultra secret: the inside story of Operation Ultra, Bletchley Park and Enigma, Orion Books Ltd 2000. Van Dulken, S. & Phillips, A., Inventing the 20th century: 100 inventions that shaped the world. New York University Press 2002. White, K.D., Greek and Roman Technology, Thames and Hudson 1984. Wolfgang, B., "Placed into the Right Position: Etymological Notes in Tu and Congeners", in F. Bray, V. Dorofeeva-Lichtmann, & G. Métailié (eds.), Graphics and Text in the Production of Technical Knowledge in China: The Warp and the Weft, Brill 2007. Xumei, Y. & Xiuwen, L., "The calligraphy and printing cultural heritage of Gansu: the development of the engraved printing process and papermaking: an archaeological approach", in S.M. Allen, Z. Lin, & X. Cheng, eds., The History and Cultural Heritage of Chinese Calligraphy, Printing and Library Work, Walter de Gruyter 2010, pp.45-70. Online Resources Alberuni’s India: An Account of the religion, philosophy, literature, geography, chronology, astronomy, customs, laws and astrology of India about AD1030, English trans. Dr E.C. Sachau, Volume I, Kegan Paul 1910, accessed February 2019: https://archive.org/stream/alberunisindiaac01biru#page/182/mode/2up “What is Braille?” American Foundation for the Blind, accessed February 2019: https://www.afb.org/blindness-and-low-vision/braille/what-braille “Braille invents his code,” American Foundation for the Blind, accessed February 2019: https://www.afb.org/about-afb/history/online-museums/life-and-legacy-louis-braille/braille-nvents-his-code British Museum Split Nib Pen 1865,1220.21, British Museum Online Catalogue, Accessed February 2019: https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?assetId=633717001&objectId=810252&partId=1 Carvalho, D.N., Forty Centuries of Ink, The World Wide SchoolTM 1999, accessed February 2019: Hyatt Mayo, A., Prints and People: a social history of printed pictures, New York Metropolitan Museum of Art, The Met Online Collection, accessed February 2019: https://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/p15324coll10/id/94303 Li, Z., “Problems in the History of Chinese Bindings,” trans. Frances Wood, British Library 1987: 104-119; orig. Journal of Chinese Library Association 1987, accessed February 2019: https://www.bl.uk/eblj/1989articles/pdf/article8.pdf Plum, W.R., The Military Telegraph During the Civil War in the United States, Jansen, McClurg & Company Publishers 1882, accessed February 2019: https://archive.org/details/militarytelegraph02plumrich/page/n7 UNESCO Memory of the World Project, unesco.org, accessed February 2019:Term Explanation Alphabet Letters or symbols (graphemes), usually arranged in a set order, that represent the significant sounds (phonemes) of a spoken language. Writing A system that allows messages to be recorded, communicated, and read. Translation Rendering the same message into more than one language. Steganography The practice of hiding the fact that a message has been communicated. Ciphers These disguise the meaning of messages by replacing each letter with a symbol. Codes These disguise the meaning of messages by replacing whole words or phrases with predetermined words, numbers, or symbols. Algorithm The rules followed to encrypt messages using a cipher. Key The exact detail chosen to encrypt a specific message. Cryptanalysis The practice of breaking codes and ciphers.
Roman Tombstone, Replica
Rome, Italy
2nd century BC
Mallet and Chisel
Stone Mason’s Tools
Contemporary
Gupta Period Coin
India
c.AD 320-480
Calif Harun Al-Rashid Coin
Baghdad, Iraq
c. AD 763-809
Brass Cash Coin
Korea
AD 996
Edo Era Brass Coin
Japan
AD 1835
Cuneiform Cylinder, Replica
Babylonia
c.681-669 BC
Cuneiform Tablet with Envelope
Old Babylonian, Replica
1750 BC
Cuneiform Stylus, Replica
Mesopotamia
c.3200-3000 BC
Cylinder Seal, Replica
Stone showing Sale of an Ibex
c.3000 BC
Cylinder Seal Impression
Original Syrian Seal in DC4
c.1500 BC
Conical Seal (Matrix)
Replica, Egypt
1500 BC
Seal Stamp (Matrix), Replica
Mesopotamia
c.3500 BC
Clay Seal Impression, Replica
Mohenjo Daro, Pakistan
c.2400-2000 BC
Clay Seal Impression, Replica
Ugarit Alphabet, Syria
c.1450-1200 BC
Roman Wax Tablets, Replica
Letter of M. Cicero
7th June 49 BC
Roman Stylus
Italy
2nd century AD
Papyrus, Egypt
Hunting Waterfowl
Replica
Palm Leaf (Ola) Horoscope
Deva Negara Script, Myanmar
Contemporary
Slate Chalkboard and “Chalk”
Used in India by 11th century AD
Used in Europe by 14th century AD
Pheasant Feather Quills
Mediterranean Region since
c.2nd century BC
Seal Matrix & Resin Wax
Wax Seals Were Widespread By 13th century AD
Red Fountain Pen with Ink & Nibs
Invented in Arab Egypt
10th century AD
Black Dip Pen with Ink & Nibs
Invented in Roman Britain
AD 43-410
Purple Calligraphy Ink Brush
Invented in China
c.300 BC
Scroll: Replica
Mediterranean: Papyrus/Parchment
China: Silk/Bamboo/Paper
Codex: Confucius Book of Wisdom
Woodblock Printing & Stitched
China, post AD 1500
StarTrekTM Ink Block Stamp
Stamp mimics Woodblock printing techniques
c.AD 1996
Moveable-Type Punch-Stamps
Showing individual letters on metal stalks
c.AD 1996
Lead Pencil (Graphite)
Invented Cumbria, England
AD1565
Ball Point Pen
Invented Massachusetts & Hungary
AD 1888 & 1939 respectively
Apple iPad First Gen & Black PC Stylus
AD 2010
USB Keys
AD 2015
Logitech Keyboard
AD 2010
Apple iPad White Stylus
AD 2010
21st century AD
Scytalae, Replica
Sparta
7th century BC
Alberti Cipher Disc, Replica
The Vatican, Italy
15th century AD
Mexican Army Cipher
Replica, Mexico
c. AD 1913
Braille Cipher Disc
Creative Crafthouse, Florida
AD 2019
Enigma, Simulation Model
Creative Crafthouse, Florida
c. AD 1930s
Explanatory Schematic produced by UNEMA
https://web.archive.org/web/20030609213555/http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/books/tech/printing/FortyCenturiesofInk/toc.html
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/flagship-project-activities/memory-of-the-world/register/full-list-of-registered-heritage/registered-heritage-page-1/baegun-hwasang-chorok-buljo-jikji-simche-yojeol-volii-the-second-volume-of-anthology-of-great-buddhist-priests-zen-teachings/